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Introducing Brain's 7th Edition: A Dedicated Focus on Public Education and Outreach
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As part of its enduring commitment to public education and outreach, the Society for Neuroscience (SfN) is pleased to present the seventh edition of Brain Facts: A Primer on the Brain and Nervous System. This edition has been substantially revised. Research progress has been updated throughout the publication, and a new section on animal research added. The information also has been reorganized into six sections to make it easier for readers to glean the "big ideas" covered, and the specific topics that fall under each category.
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The publication of the Brain Facts seventh edition coincides with the launch of BrainFacts. org, a public information initiative of The Kavli Foundation, The Gatsby Charitable Foundation, and SfN. BrainFacts. org brings to digital life the historic Brain Facts book, and augments it with hundreds of additional, scientifically vetted public information resources available from leading neuroscience organizations worldwide. BrainFacts. org is envisioned as a dynamic and unique online source for authoritative public information about the progress and promise of brain research.
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What's more, scientists still have not uncovered the extent of what the brain can do. This single organ controls every aspect of our body, ranging from heart rate and sexual activity to emotion, learning, and memory. The brain controls the immune system's response to disease, and determines, in part, how well people respond to medical treatments. Ultimately, it shapes our thoughts, hopes, dreams, and imaginations. It is the ability of the brain to perform all of these functions that makes us human.
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Neuroscientists, whose specialty is the study of the brain and the nervous system, have the daunting task of deciphering the mystery of how the brain commands the body. Over the years, the field has made enormous progress. For example, neuroscientists now know that each person has as many as 100 billion nerve cells called neurons, and the communication between these cells forms the basis of all brain function. However, scientists continue to strive for a deeper understanding of how these cells are born, grow, and organize themselves into effective, functional circuits that usually remain in working order for life.
The motivation of researchers is to further our understanding of human behavior, including how we read and speak and why we form relationships; to discover ways to prevent or cure many devastating disorders of the brain as well as the body under the brain's control; and to advance the enduring scientific quest to understand how the world around us — and within us — works. The importance of this research cannot be overstated. More than 1,000 disorders of the brain and nervous system result in more hospitalizations than any other disease group, including heart disease and cancer.
Neurological illnesses affect more than 50 million Americans annually and cost more than $500 billion to treat. In addition, mental disorders strike 44 million adults a year at a cost of $148 billion. Advances in research could reduce these costs. For example, discovering how to delay the onset of Alzheimer's disease by five years could save $50 billion in annual health care costs. In the past two decades, neuroscience has made impressive progress in many of the field's key areas. Now, more than ever, neuroscience is on the cusp of major breakthroughs.
Recently, significant findings have been documented in the following areas. Genetics Disease genes have been identified that are key to several disorders, including the epilepsies, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). These discoveries have provided new insight into underlying disease mechanisms and are beginning to suggest new treatments. With the mapping of the human genome, neuroscientists have been able to make more rapid progress in identifying genes that either contribute to or directly cause human neurological disease.
Mapping animal genomes has aided the search for genes that regulate and control many complex behaviors. Gene-environment Interactions Most major diseases have a genetic basis strongly influenced by the environment. For example, identical twins, who share the same DNA, have an increased risk of getting the same disease compared with nonidentical siblings. However, if one twin gets the disease, the probability the other will also be affected is between 30 percent and 60 percent, indicating that there are environmental factors at play as well.
Environmental influences involve factors such as exposure to toxic substances, diet, level of physical activity, and stressful life events. Brain Plasticity The brain possesses the ability to modify neural connections to better cope with new circumstances. Scientists have begun to uncover the molecular basis of this process, called plasticity, revealing how learning and memory occur and how declines might be reversed. In addition, scientists have discovered that the adult brain continually generates new nerve cells — a 4 BraiN factS | introduction
Society for NeuroScieNce process known as neurogenesis. Interestingly, one of the most active regions for neurogenesis in the brain, the hippocampus, is also an area heavily involved in learning and memory. New Therapies Researchers have gained insight into the mechanisms of molecular neuropharmacology, or how drugs affect the functioning of neurons in the nervous system, providing a new understanding of the mechanisms of addiction. These advances have also led to new treatments for depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
In addition, neuroscientists have discovered that many of the toxic venoms used by animals can be adapted into new pharmacological treatments. For example, the poison of a puffer fish, tetrodotoxin (TTX), halts electrical signaling in nerve cells. However, in discrete, targeted doses, TTX can be used specifically to shut down those nerve cells involved in sending constant signals of chronic pain. Imaging Revolutionary imaging techniques, including positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and optical imaging with weak lasers, have revealed the brain systems underlying attention, memory, and emotions.
These techniques also have pointed to dynamic changes that occur in schizophrenia and other disorders. Cell Death Two major advances in neuroscience — the discovery of how and why neurons die, along with the discovery of stem cells, which divide and form new neurons — have many clinical applications. These findings have dramatically improved the chances of reversing the effects of injury in both the brain and the spinal cord. The first effective treatments for stroke and spinal cord injury based on these advances are under study.
Brain Development New understanding of brain function, as well as newly discovered molecules responsible for guiding nervous system development, have given scientists greater insight into certain disorders of childhood, such as cerebral palsy. Together with the discovery of stem cells, these advances are pointing to novel strategies for helping the brain or spinal cord regain functions lost as a result of injury or developmental dysfunction. This book provides a glimpse of what is known about the nervous system, the disorders of the brain, and some of the exciting avenues of research that promise new therapies for many neurological diseases.
In the years ahead, neuroscience research funded by public and private support will continue to expand our knowledge of how this extraordinary organ and the entire nervous system function. Society for NeuroScieNce introduction | BraiN factS 5 chaPter 1: haPter BraiN BaSicS in n this chapter Anatomy of the Brain and the Nervous System The Neuron Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators n n Anatomy of the Brain and the Nervous System The brain is the body's control center, managing just about everything we do. Whether we're thinking, dreaming, playing sports, or even sleeping, the brain is involved in some way.
A wonder of evolutionary engineering, the brain is organized into different parts that are wired together in a specific way. Each part has a specific job (or jobs) to do, making the brain the ultimate multitasker. Working in tandem with the rest of the nervous system, the brain sends and receives messages, allowing for ongoing communication. Mapping the Brain The cerebrum, the largest part of the human brain, is associated with higher order functioning, including the control of voluntary behavior. Thinking, perceiving, planning, and understanding language all lie within the cerebrum's control.
The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres — the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere. Bridging the two hemispheres is a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum. The two hemispheres communicate with one another across the corpus callosum. Covering the outermost layer of the cerebrum is a sheet of tissue called the cerebral cortex. Because of its gray color, the cerebral cortex is often referred to as gray matter. The wrinkled appearance of the human brain also can be attributed to characteristics of the cerebral cortex. More than two-thirds of this layer is folded into grooves.
The grooves increase the brain's surface area, allowing for inclusion of many more neurons. The function of the cerebral cortex can be understood by dividing it somewhat arbitrarily into zones, much like the geographical arrangement of continents. The frontal lobe is responsible for initiating and coordinating motor movements; higher cognitive skills, such as problem solving, thinking, planning, and organizing; and for many aspects of personality and emotional makeup. The parietal lobe is involved with sensory processes, attention, and language.
Damage to the right side of the parietal lobe can result in difficulty navigating spaces, even familiar ones. If the left side is injured, the ability to understand spoken and/or written language may be impaired. The occipital lobe helps process visual information, including recognition of shapes and colors. The temporal lobe helps process auditory information and integrate information from the other senses. Neuroscientists also believe that the temporal lobe has a role to play in short-term memory through its hippocampal formation, and in learned emotional responses through its amygdala.
All of these structures make up the forebrain. Other key parts of the forebrain include the basal ganglia, which are cerebral nuclei deep in the cerebral cortex; the thalamus; and the hypothalamus. The cerebral nuclei help coordinate muscle movements and reward useful behaviors; the thalamus passes most sensory information on to the cerebral cortex after helping to prioritize it; and the hypothalamus is the control center for appetites, defensive and reproductive behaviors, and sleep-wakefulness. The midbrain consists of two pairs of small hills called colliculi.
These collections of neurons play a critical role in visual and auditory reflexes and in relaying this type of information to the thalamus. The midbrain also has clusters of neurons that regulate activity in widespread parts of the central nervous system and are thought to be important for reward mechanisms and mood. The hindbrain includes the pons and the medulla oblongata, which control respiration, heart rhythms, and blood glucose levels. Another part of the hindbrain is the cerebellum which, like the cerebrum, also has two hemispheres.
The cerebellum's two hemispheres help control movement and cognitive processes that require precise timing, and also play an important role in Pavlovian learning. The spinal cord is the extension of the brain through the vertebral column. It receives sensory information from all parts 6 BraiN factS | introduction to the brain Society for NeuroScieNce small concentrations of gray matter called ganglia, a term specifically used to describe structures in the PNS. Overall the nervous system is a vast biological computing device formed by a network of gray matter regions interconnected by white matter tracts.
The brain sends messages via the spinal cord to peripheral nerves throughout the body that serve to control the muscles and internal organs. The somatic nervous system is made up of neurons connecting the CNS with the parts of the body that interact with the outside world. Somatic nerves in the cervical region are related to the neck and arms; those in the thoracic region serve the chest; and those in the lumbar and sacral regions interact with the legs. The autonomic nervous system is made of neurons connecting the CNS with internal organs. It is divided into two parts.
The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes energy and resources during times of stress and arousal, while the parasympathetic nervous system conserves energy and resources during relaxed states, including sleep. Messages are carried throughout the nervous system by the individual units of its circuitry: neurons. The next section describes the structure of neurons, how they send and receive messages, and recent discoveries about these unique cells. The top image shows the four main sections of the cerebral cortex: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe.
Functions such as movement are controlled by the motor cortex, and the sensory cortex receives information on vision, hearing, speech, and other senses. The bottom image shows the location of the brain's major internal structures. The Neuron of the body below the head. It uses this information for reflex responses to pain, for example, and it also relays the sensory information to the brain and its cerebral cortex. In addition, the spinal cord generates nerve impulses in nerves that control the muscles and the viscera, both through reflex activities and through voluntary commands from the cerebrum.
The Parts of the Nervous System The forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord form the central nervous system (CNS), which is one of two great divisions of the nervous system as a whole. The brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord, which is about 17 inches (43 cm) long, is protected by the vertebral column. The other great division of the human brain is the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves and Cells within the nervous system, called neurons, communicate with each other in unique ways.
The neuron is the basic working unit of the brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells. In fact, the brain is what it is because of the structural and functional properties of interconnected neurons. The mammalian brain contains between 100 million and 100 billion neurons, depending on the species. Each mammalian neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The cell body contains the nucleus and cytoplasm. The axon extends from the cell body and often gives rise to many smaller branches before ending at nerve terminals.
Dendrites extend from the neuron cell body and receive messages from other neurons. Synapses are the contact points where one neuron communicates with another. The dendrites are covered with synapses formed by the ends of axons from other neurons. When neurons receive or send messages, they transmit electrical impulses along their axons, which can range Society for NeuroScieNce introduction to the brain | BraiN factS 7 Nerve impulses involve the opening and closing of ion channels.
These are selectively permeable, water-filled molecular tunnels that pass through the cell membrane and allow ions — electrically charged atoms — or small molecules to enter or leave the cell. The flow of ions creates an electrical current that produces tiny voltage changes across the neuron's cell membrane. The ability of a neuron to generate an electrical impulse depends on a difference in charge between the inside and outside of the cell. When a nerve impulse begins, a dramatic reversal in the electrical potential occurs on the cell's membrane, as the neuron switches from an internal negative charge to a positive charge state.
The change, called an action potential, then passes along the axon's membrane at speeds up to several hundred miles per hour. In this way, a neuron may be able to fire impulses multiple times every second. When these voltage changes reach the end of an axon, they trigger the release of neurotransmitters, the brain's chemical messengers. Neurotransmitters are released at nerve terminals, diffuse across the synapse, and bind to receptors on the surface of the target cell (often another neuron, but also possibly a muscle or gland cell).
These receptors act as onThe nervous system has two great divisions: the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves and-off switches for the next cell. Each receptor and small concentrations of gray matter called ganglia. The brain sends messages via the spinal has a distinctly shaped region that selectively cord to the body's peripheral nerves, which control the muscles and internal organs. recognizes a particular chemical messenger.
A neurotransmitter fits into this region in much in length from a tiny fraction of an inch (or centimeter) the same way that a key fits into a lock. When to three feet (about one meter) or more. Many axons are the transmitter is in place, this interaction alters the target covered with a layered myelin sheath, which accelerates the cell's membrane potential and triggers a response from the transmission of electrical signals along the axon. This sheath target cell, such as the generation of an action potential, the is made by specialized cells called glia.
In the brain, the glia contraction of a muscle, the stimulation of enzyme activity, that make the sheath are called oligodendrocytes, and in the or the inhibition of neurotransmitter release. peripheral nervous system, they are known as Schwann cells. An increased understanding of neurotransmitters in The brain contains at least ten times more glia than the brain and knowledge of the effects of drugs on these neurons. Glia perform many jobs. Researchers have known chemicals — gained largely through animal research — for a while that glia transport nutrients to neurons, clean comprise one of the largest research efforts in neuroscience. p brain debris, digest parts of dead neurons, and help hold Scientists hope that this information will help them neurons in place. Current research is uncovering important become more knowledgeable about the circuits responsible new roles for glia in brain function. for disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. 8 BraiN fac
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Introducing Brain's 7th Edition: A Dedicated Focus on Public Education and Outreach
Categories: BrainMemoryNervous SystemNeuron
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Essay, Pages 61(15087 words)
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As part of its enduring commitment to public education and outreach, the Society for Neuroscience (SfN) is pleased to present the seventh edition of Brain Facts: A Primer on the Brain and Nervous System. This edition has been substantially revised. Research progress has been updated throughout the publication, and a new section on animal research added. The information also has been reorganized into six sections to make it easier for readers to glean the "big ideas" covered, and the specific topics that fall under each category.
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The publication of the Brain Facts seventh edition coincides with the launch of BrainFacts. org, a public information initiative of The Kavli Foundation, The Gatsby Charitable Foundation, and SfN. BrainFacts. org brings to digital life the historic Brain Facts book, and augments it with hundreds of additional, scientifically vetted public information resources available from leading neuroscience organizations worldwide. BrainFacts. org is envisioned as a dynamic and unique online source for authoritative public information about the progress and promise of brain research.
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What's more, scientists still have not uncovered the extent of what the brain can do. This single organ controls every aspect of our body, ranging from heart rate and sexual activity to emotion, learning, and memory. The brain controls the immune system's response to disease, and determines, in part, how well people respond to medical treatments. Ultimately, it shapes our thoughts, hopes, dreams, and imaginations. It is the ability of the brain to perform all of these functions that makes us human.
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Neuroscientists, whose specialty is the study of the brain and the nervous system, have the daunting task of deciphering the mystery of how the brain commands the body. Over the years, the field has made enormous progress. For example, neuroscientists now know that each person has as many as 100 billion nerve cells called neurons, and the communication between these cells forms the basis of all brain function. However, scientists continue to strive for a deeper understanding of how these cells are born, grow, and organize themselves into effective, functional circuits that usually remain in working order for life.
The motivation of researchers is to further our understanding of human behavior, including how we read and speak and why we form relationships; to discover ways to prevent or cure many devastating disorders of the brain as well as the body under the brain's control; and to advance the enduring scientific quest to understand how the world around us — and within us — works. The importance of this research cannot be overstated. More than 1,000 disorders of the brain and nervous system result in more hospitalizations than any other disease group, including heart disease and cancer.
Neurological illnesses affect more than 50 million Americans annually and cost more than $500 billion to treat. In addition, mental disorders strike 44 million adults a year at a cost of $148 billion. Advances in research could reduce these costs. For example, discovering how to delay the onset of Alzheimer's disease by five years could save $50 billion in annual health care costs. In the past two decades, neuroscience has made impressive progress in many of the field's key areas. Now, more than ever, neuroscience is on the cusp of major breakthroughs.
Recently, significant findings have been documented in the following areas. Genetics Disease genes have been identified that are key to several disorders, including the epilepsies, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). These discoveries have provided new insight into underlying disease mechanisms and are beginning to suggest new treatments. With the mapping of the human genome, neuroscientists have been able to make more rapid progress in identifying genes that either contribute to or directly cause human neurological disease.
Mapping animal genomes has aided the search for genes that regulate and control many complex behaviors. Gene-environment Interactions Most major diseases have a genetic basis strongly influenced by the environment. For example, identical twins, who share the same DNA, have an increased risk of getting the same disease compared with nonidentical siblings. However, if one twin gets the disease, the probability the other will also be affected is between 30 percent and 60 percent, indicating that there are environmental factors at play as well.
Environmental influences involve factors such as exposure to toxic substances, diet, level of physical activity, and stressful life events. Brain Plasticity The brain possesses the ability to modify neural connections to better cope with new circumstances. Scientists have begun to uncover the molecular basis of this process, called plasticity, revealing how learning and memory occur and how declines might be reversed. In addition, scientists have discovered that the adult brain continually generates new nerve cells — a 4 BraiN factS | introduction
Society for NeuroScieNce process known as neurogenesis. Interestingly, one of the most active regions for neurogenesis in the brain, the hippocampus, is also an area heavily involved in learning and memory. New Therapies Researchers have gained insight into the mechanisms of molecular neuropharmacology, or how drugs affect the functioning of neurons in the nervous system, providing a new understanding of the mechanisms of addiction. These advances have also led to new treatments for depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
In addition, neuroscientists have discovered that many of the toxic venoms used by animals can be adapted into new pharmacological treatments. For example, the poison of a puffer fish, tetrodotoxin (TTX), halts electrical signaling in nerve cells. However, in discrete, targeted doses, TTX can be used specifically to shut down those nerve cells involved in sending constant signals of chronic pain. Imaging Revolutionary imaging techniques, including positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and optical imaging with weak lasers, have revealed the brain systems underlying attention, memory, and emotions.
These techniques also have pointed to dynamic changes that occur in schizophrenia and other disorders. Cell Death Two major advances in neuroscience — the discovery of how and why neurons die, along with the discovery of stem cells, which divide and form new neurons — have many clinical applications. These findings have dramatically improved the chances of reversing the effects of injury in both the brain and the spinal cord. The first effective treatments for stroke and spinal cord injury based on these advances are under study.
Brain Development New understanding of brain function, as well as newly discovered molecules responsible for guiding nervous system development, have given scientists greater insight into certain disorders of childhood, such as cerebral palsy. Together with the discovery of stem cells, these advances are pointing to novel strategies for helping the brain or spinal cord regain functions lost as a result of injury or developmental dysfunction. This book provides a glimpse of what is known about the nervous system, the disorders of the brain, and some of the exciting avenues of research that promise new therapies for many neurological diseases.
In the years ahead, neuroscience research funded by public and private support will continue to expand our knowledge of how this extraordinary organ and the entire nervous system function. Society for NeuroScieNce introduction | BraiN factS 5 chaPter 1: haPter BraiN BaSicS in n this chapter Anatomy of the Brain and the Nervous System The Neuron Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators n n Anatomy of the Brain and the Nervous System The brain is the body's control center, managing just about everything we do. Whether we're thinking, dreaming, playing sports, or even sleeping, the brain is involved in some way.
A wonder of evolutionary engineering, the brain is organized into different parts that are wired together in a specific way. Each part has a specific job (or jobs) to do, making the brain the ultimate multitasker. Working in tandem with the rest of the nervous system, the brain sends and receives messages, allowing for ongoing communication. Mapping the Brain The cerebrum, the largest part of the human brain, is associated with higher order functioning, including the control of voluntary behavior. Thinking, perceiving, planning, and understanding language all lie within the cerebrum's control.
The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres — the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere. Bridging the two hemispheres is a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum. The two hemispheres communicate with one another across the corpus callosum. Covering the outermost layer of the cerebrum is a sheet of tissue called the cerebral cortex. Because of its gray color, the cerebral cortex is often referred to as gray matter. The wrinkled appearance of the human brain also can be attributed to characteristics of the cerebral cortex. More than two-thirds of this layer is folded into grooves.
The grooves increase the brain's surface area, allowing for inclusion of many more neurons. The function of the cerebral cortex can be understood by dividing it somewhat arbitrarily into zones, much like the geographical arrangement of continents. The frontal lobe is responsible for initiating and coordinating motor movements; higher cognitive skills, such as problem solving, thinking, planning, and organizing; and for many aspects of personality and emotional makeup. The parietal lobe is involved with sensory processes, attention, and language.
Damage to the right side of the parietal lobe can result in difficulty navigating spaces, even familiar ones. If the left side is injured, the ability to understand spoken and/or written language may be impaired. The occipital lobe helps process visual information, including recognition of shapes and colors. The temporal lobe helps process auditory information and integrate information from the other senses. Neuroscientists also believe that the temporal lobe has a role to play in short-term memory through its hippocampal formation, and in learned emotional responses through its amygdala.
All of these structures make up the forebrain. Other key parts of the forebrain include the basal ganglia, which are cerebral nuclei deep in the cerebral cortex; the thalamus; and the hypothalamus. The cerebral nuclei help coordinate muscle movements and reward useful behaviors; the thalamus passes most sensory information on to the cerebral cortex after helping to prioritize it; and the hypothalamus is the control center for appetites, defensive and reproductive behaviors, and sleep-wakefulness. The midbrain consists of two pairs of small hills called colliculi.
These collections of neurons play a critical role in visual and auditory reflexes and in relaying this type of information to the thalamus. The midbrain also has clusters of neurons that regulate activity in widespread parts of the central nervous system and are thought to be important for reward mechanisms and mood. The hindbrain includes the pons and the medulla oblongata, which control respiration, heart rhythms, and blood glucose levels. Another part of the hindbrain is the cerebellum which, like the cerebrum, also has two hemispheres.
The cerebellum's two hemispheres help control movement and cognitive processes that require precise timing, and also play an important role in Pavlovian learning. The spinal cord is the extension of the brain through the vertebral column. It receives sensory information from all parts 6 BraiN factS | introduction to the brain Society for NeuroScieNce small concentrations of gray matter called ganglia, a term specifically used to describe structures in the PNS. Overall the nervous system is a vast biological computing device formed by a network of gray matter regions interconnected by white matter tracts.
The brain sends messages via the spinal cord to peripheral nerves throughout the body that serve to control the muscles and internal organs. The somatic nervous system is made up of neurons connecting the CNS with the parts of the body that interact with the outside world. Somatic nerves in the cervical region are related to the neck and arms; those in the thoracic region serve the chest; and those in the lumbar and sacral regions interact with the legs. The autonomic nervous system is made of neurons connecting the CNS with internal organs. It is divided into two parts.
The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes energy and resources during times of stress and arousal, while the parasympathetic nervous system conserves energy and resources during relaxed states, including sleep. Messages are carried throughout the nervous system by the individual units of its circuitry: neurons. The next section describes the structure of neurons, how they send and receive messages, and recent discoveries about these unique cells. The top image shows the four main sections of the cerebral cortex: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe.
Functions such as movement are controlled by the motor cortex, and the sensory cortex receives information on vision, hearing, speech, and other senses. The bottom image shows the location of the brain's major internal structures. The Neuron of the body below the head. It uses this information for reflex responses to pain, for example, and it also relays the sensory information to the brain and its cerebral cortex. In addition, the spinal cord generates nerve impulses in nerves that control the muscles and the viscera, both through reflex activities and through voluntary commands from the cerebrum.
The Parts of the Nervous System The forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord form the central nervous system (CNS), which is one of two great divisions of the nervous system as a whole. The brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord, which is about 17 inches (43 cm) long, is protected by the vertebral column. The other great division of the human brain is the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves and Cells within the nervous system, called neurons, communicate with each other in unique ways.
The neuron is the basic working unit of the brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells. In fact, the brain is what it is because of the structural and functional properties of interconnected neurons. The mammalian brain contains between 100 million and 100 billion neurons, depending on the species. Each mammalian neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The cell body contains the nucleus and cytoplasm. The axon extends from the cell body and often gives rise to many smaller branches before ending at nerve terminals.
Dendrites extend from the neuron cell body and receive messages from other neurons. Synapses are the contact points where one neuron communicates with another. The dendrites are covered with synapses formed by the ends of axons from other neurons. When neurons receive or send messages, they transmit electrical impulses along their axons, which can range Society for NeuroScieNce introduction to the brain | BraiN factS 7 Nerve impulses involve the opening and closing of ion channels.
These are selectively permeable, water-filled molecular tunnels that pass through the cell membrane and allow ions — electrically charged atoms — or small molecules to enter or leave the cell. The flow of ions creates an electrical current that produces tiny voltage changes across the neuron's cell membrane. The ability of a neuron to generate an electrical impulse depends on a difference in charge between the inside and outside of the cell. When a nerve impulse begins, a dramatic reversal in the electrical potential occurs on the cell's membrane, as the neuron switches from an internal negative charge to a positive charge state.
The change, called an action potential, then passes along the axon's membrane at speeds up to several hundred miles per hour. In this way, a neuron may be able to fire impulses multiple times every second. When these voltage changes reach the end of an axon, they trigger the release of neurotransmitters, the brain's chemical messengers. Neurotransmitters are released at nerve terminals, diffuse across the synapse, and bind to receptors on the surface of the target cell (often another neuron, but also possibly a muscle or gland cell).
These receptors act as onThe nervous system has two great divisions: the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves and-off switches for the next cell. Each receptor and small concentrations of gray matter called ganglia. The brain sends messages via the spinal has a distinctly shaped region that selectively cord to the body's peripheral nerves, which control the muscles and internal organs. recognizes a particular chemical messenger.
A neurotransmitter fits into this region in much in length from a tiny fraction of an inch (or centimeter) the same way that a key fits into a lock. When to three feet (about one meter) or more. Many axons are the transmitter is in place, this interaction alters the target covered with a layered myelin sheath, which accelerates the cell's membrane potential and triggers a response from the transmission of electrical signals along the axon. This sheath target cell, such as the generation of an action potential, the is made by specialized cells called glia.
In the brain, the glia contraction of a muscle, the stimulation of enzyme activity, that make the sheath are called oligodendrocytes, and in the or the inhibition of neurotransmitter release. peripheral nervous system, they are known as Schwann cells. An increased understanding of neurotransmitters in The brain contains at least ten times more glia than the brain and knowledge of the effects of drugs on these neurons. Glia perform many jobs. Researchers have known chemicals — gained largely through animal research — for a while that glia transport nutrients to neurons, clean comprise one of the largest research efforts in neuroscience. p brain debris, digest parts of dead neurons, and help hold Scientists hope that this information will help them neurons in place. Current research is uncovering important become more knowledgeable about the circuits responsible new roles for glia in brain function. for disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. 8 BraiN fac
Free essays
Introducing Brain's 7th Edition: A Dedicated Focus on Public Education and Outreach
Categories: BrainMemoryNervous SystemNeuron
About this essay
DOWNLOAD PAPER
Essay, Pages 61(15087 words)
Views
521
As part of its enduring commitment to public education and outreach, the Society for Neuroscience (SfN) is pleased to present the seventh edition of Brain Facts: A Primer on the Brain and Nervous System. This edition has been substantially revised. Research progress has been updated throughout the publication, and a new section on animal research added. The information also has been reorganized into six sections to make it easier for readers to glean the "big ideas" covered, and the specific topics that fall under each category.
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The publication of the Brain Facts seventh edition coincides with the launch of BrainFacts. org, a public information initiative of The Kavli Foundation, The Gatsby Charitable Foundation, and SfN. BrainFacts. org brings to digital life the historic Brain Facts book, and augments it with hundreds of additional, scientifically vetted public information resources available from leading neuroscience organizations worldwide. BrainFacts. org is envisioned as a dynamic and unique online source for authoritative public information about the progress and promise of brain research.
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What's more, scientists still have not uncovered the extent of what the brain can do. This single organ controls every aspect of our body, ranging from heart rate and sexual activity to emotion, learning, and memory. The brain controls the immune system's response to disease, and determines, in part, how well people respond to medical treatments. Ultimately, it shapes our thoughts, hopes, dreams, and imaginations. It is the ability of the brain to perform all of these functions that makes us human.
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Neuroscientists, whose specialty is the study of the brain and the nervous system, have the daunting task of deciphering the mystery of how the brain commands the body. Over the years, the field has made enormous progress. For example, neuroscientists now know that each person has as many as 100 billion nerve cells called neurons, and the communication between these cells forms the basis of all brain function. However, scientists continue to strive for a deeper understanding of how these cells are born, grow, and organize themselves into effective, functional circuits that usually remain in working order for life.
The motivation of researchers is to further our understanding of human behavior, including how we read and speak and why we form relationships; to discover ways to prevent or cure many devastating disorders of the brain as well as the body under the brain's control; and to advance the enduring scientific quest to understand how the world around us — and within us — works. The importance of this research cannot be overstated. More than 1,000 disorders of the brain and nervous system result in more hospitalizations than any other disease group, including heart disease and cancer.
Neurological illnesses affect more than 50 million Americans annually and cost more than $500 billion to treat. In addition, mental disorders strike 44 million adults a year at a cost of $148 billion. Advances in research could reduce these costs. For example, discovering how to delay the onset of Alzheimer's disease by five years could save $50 billion in annual health care costs. In the past two decades, neuroscience has made impressive progress in many of the field's key areas. Now, more than ever, neuroscience is on the cusp of major breakthroughs.
Recently, significant findings have been documented in the following areas. Genetics Disease genes have been identified that are key to several disorders, including the epilepsies, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). These discoveries have provided new insight into underlying disease mechanisms and are beginning to suggest new treatments. With the mapping of the human genome, neuroscientists have been able to make more rapid progress in identifying genes that either contribute to or directly cause human neurological disease.
Mapping animal genomes has aided the search for genes that regulate and control many complex behaviors. Gene-environment Interactions Most major diseases have a genetic basis strongly influenced by the environment. For example, identical twins, who share the same DNA, have an increased risk of getting the same disease compared with nonidentical siblings. However, if one twin gets the disease, the probability the other will also be affected is between 30 percent and 60 percent, indicating that there are environmental factors at play as well.
Environmental influences involve factors such as exposure to toxic substances, diet, level of physical activity, and stressful life events. Brain Plasticity The brain possesses the ability to modify neural connections to better cope with new circumstances. Scientists have begun to uncover the molecular basis of this process, called plasticity, revealing how learning and memory occur and how declines might be reversed. In addition, scientists have discovered that the adult brain continually generates new nerve cells — a 4 BraiN factS | introduction
Society for NeuroScieNce process known as neurogenesis. Interestingly, one of the most active regions for neurogenesis in the brain, the hippocampus, is also an area heavily involved in learning and memory. New Therapies Researchers have gained insight into the mechanisms of molecular neuropharmacology, or how drugs affect the functioning of neurons in the nervous system, providing a new understanding of the mechanisms of addiction. These advances have also led to new treatments for depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
In addition, neuroscientists have discovered that many of the toxic venoms used by animals can be adapted into new pharmacological treatments. For example, the poison of a puffer fish, tetrodotoxin (TTX), halts electrical signaling in nerve cells. However, in discrete, targeted doses, TTX can be used specifically to shut down those nerve cells involved in sending constant signals of chronic pain. Imaging Revolutionary imaging techniques, including positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and optical imaging with weak lasers, have revealed the brain systems underlying attention, memory, and emotions.
These techniques also have pointed to dynamic changes that occur in schizophrenia and other disorders. Cell Death Two major advances in neuroscience — the discovery of how and why neurons die, along with the discovery of stem cells, which divide and form new neurons — have many clinical applications. These findings have dramatically improved the chances of reversing the effects of injury in both the brain and the spinal cord. The first effective treatments for stroke and spinal cord injury based on these advances are under study.
Brain Development New understanding of brain function, as well as newly discovered molecules responsible for guiding nervous system development, have given scientists greater insight into certain disorders of childhood, such as cerebral palsy. Together with the discovery of stem cells, these advances are pointing to novel strategies for helping the brain or spinal cord regain functions lost as a result of injury or developmental dysfunction. This book provides a glimpse of what is known about the nervous system, the disorders of the brain, and some of the exciting avenues of research that promise new therapies for many neurological diseases.
In the years ahead, neuroscience research funded by public and private support will continue to expand our knowledge of how this extraordinary organ and the entire nervous system function. Society for NeuroScieNce introduction | BraiN factS 5 chaPter 1: haPter BraiN BaSicS in n this chapter Anatomy of the Brain and the Nervous System The Neuron Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators n n Anatomy of the Brain and the Nervous System The brain is the body's control center, managing just about everything we do. Whether we're thinking, dreaming, playing sports, or even sleeping, the brain is involved in some way.
A wonder of evolutionary engineering, the brain is organized into different parts that are wired together in a specific way. Each part has a specific job (or jobs) to do, making the brain the ultimate multitasker. Working in tandem with the rest of the nervous system, the brain sends and receives messages, allowing for ongoing communication. Mapping the Brain The cerebrum, the largest part of the human brain, is associated with higher order functioning, including the control of voluntary behavior. Thinking, perceiving, planning, and understanding language all lie within the cerebrum's control.
The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres — the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere. Bridging the two hemispheres is a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum. The two hemispheres communicate with one another across the corpus callosum. Covering the outermost layer of the cerebrum is a sheet of tissue called the cerebral cortex. Because of its gray color, the cerebral cortex is often referred to as gray matter. The wrinkled appearance of the human brain also can be attributed to characteristics of the cerebral cortex. More than two-thirds of this layer is folded into grooves.
The grooves increase the brain's surface area, allowing for inclusion of many more neurons. The function of the cerebral cortex can be understood by dividing it somewhat arbitrarily into zones, much like the geographical arrangement of continents. The frontal lobe is responsible for initiating and coordinating motor movements; higher cognitive skills, such as problem solving, thinking, planning, and organizing; and for many aspects of personality and emotional makeup. The parietal lobe is involved with sensory processes, attention, and language.
Damage to the right side of the parietal lobe can result in difficulty navigating spaces, even familiar ones. If the left side is injured, the ability to understand spoken and/or written language may be impaired. The occipital lobe helps process visual information, including recognition of shapes and colors. The temporal lobe helps process auditory information and integrate information from the other senses. Neuroscientists also believe that the temporal lobe has a role to play in short-term memory through its hippocampal formation, and in learned emotional responses through its amygdala.
All of these structures make up the forebrain. Other key parts of the forebrain include the basal ganglia, which are cerebral nuclei deep in the cerebral cortex; the thalamus; and the hypothalamus. The cerebral nuclei help coordinate muscle movements and reward useful behaviors; the thalamus passes most sensory information on to the cerebral cortex after helping to prioritize it; and the hypothalamus is the control center for appetites, defensive and reproductive behaviors, and sleep-wakefulness. The midbrain consists of two pairs of small hills called colliculi.
These collections of neurons play a critical role in visual and auditory reflexes and in relaying this type of information to the thalamus. The midbrain also has clusters of neurons that regulate activity in widespread parts of the central nervous system and are thought to be important for reward mechanisms and mood. The hindbrain includes the pons and the medulla oblongata, which control respiration, heart rhythms, and blood glucose levels. Another part of the hindbrain is the cerebellum which, like the cerebrum, also has two hemispheres.
The cerebellum's two hemispheres help control movement and cognitive processes that require precise timing, and also play an important role in Pavlovian learning. The spinal cord is the extension of the brain through the vertebral column. It receives sensory information from all parts 6 BraiN factS | introduction to the brain Society for NeuroScieNce small concentrations of gray matter called ganglia, a term specifically used to describe structures in the PNS. Overall the nervous system is a vast biological computing device formed by a network of gray matter regions interconnected by white matter tracts.
The brain sends messages via the spinal cord to peripheral nerves throughout the body that serve to control the muscles and internal organs. The somatic nervous system is made up of neurons connecting the CNS with the parts of the body that interact with the outside world. Somatic nerves in the cervical region are related to the neck and arms; those in the thoracic region serve the chest; and those in the lumbar and sacral regions interact with the legs. The autonomic nervous system is made of neurons connecting the CNS with internal organs. It is divided into two parts.
The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes energy and resources during times of stress and arousal, while the parasympathetic nervous system conserves energy and resources during relaxed states, including sleep. Messages are carried throughout the nervous system by the individual units of its circuitry: neurons. The next section describes the structure of neurons, how they send and receive messages, and recent discoveries about these unique cells. The top image shows the four main sections of the cerebral cortex: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe.
Functions such as movement are controlled by the motor cortex, and the sensory cortex receives information on vision, hearing, speech, and other senses. The bottom image shows the location of the brain's major internal structures. The Neuron of the body below the head. It uses this information for reflex responses to pain, for example, and it also relays the sensory information to the brain and its cerebral cortex. In addition, the spinal cord generates nerve impulses in nerves that control the muscles and the viscera, both through reflex activities and through voluntary commands from the cerebrum.
The Parts of the Nervous System The forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord form the central nervous system (CNS), which is one of two great divisions of the nervous system as a whole. The brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord, which is about 17 inches (43 cm) long, is protected by the vertebral column. The other great division of the human brain is the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves and Cells within the nervous system, called neurons, communicate with each other in unique ways.
The neuron is the basic working unit of the brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells. In fact, the brain is what it is because of the structural and functional properties of interconnected neurons. The mammalian brain contains between 100 million and 100 billion neurons, depending on the species. Each mammalian neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The cell body contains the nucleus and cytoplasm. The axon extends from the cell body and often gives rise to many smaller branches before ending at nerve terminals.
Dendrites extend from the neuron cell body and receive messages from other neurons. Synapses are the contact points where one neuron communicates with another. The dendrites are covered with synapses formed by the ends of axons from other neurons. When neurons receive or send messages, they transmit electrical impulses along their axons, which can range Society for NeuroScieNce introduction to the brain | BraiN factS 7 Nerve impulses involve the opening and closing of ion channels.
These are selectively permeable, water-filled molecular tunnels that pass through the cell membrane and allow ions — electrically charged atoms — or small molecules to enter or leave the cell. The flow of ions creates an electrical current that produces tiny voltage changes across the neuron's cell membrane. The ability of a neuron to generate an electrical impulse depends on a difference in charge between the inside and outside of the cell. When a nerve impulse begins, a dramatic reversal in the electrical potential occurs on the cell's membrane, as the neuron switches from an internal negative charge to a positive charge state.
The change, called an action potential, then passes along the axon's membrane at speeds up to several hundred miles per hour. In this way, a neuron may be able to fire impulses multiple times every second. When these voltage changes reach the end of an axon, they trigger the release of neurotransmitters, the brain's chemical messengers. Neurotransmitters are released at nerve terminals, diffuse across the synapse, and bind to receptors on the surface of the target cell (often another neuron, but also possibly a muscle or gland cell).
These receptors act as onThe nervous system has two great divisions: the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves and-off switches for the next cell. Each receptor and small concentrations of gray matter called ganglia. The brain sends messages via the spinal has a distinctly shaped region that selectively cord to the body's peripheral nerves, which control the muscles and internal organs. recognizes a particular chemical messenger.
A neurotransmitter fits into this region in much in length from a tiny fraction of an inch (or centimeter) the same way that a key fits into a lock. When to three feet (about one meter) or more. Many axons are the transmitter is in place, this interaction alters the target covered with a layered myelin sheath, which accelerates the cell's membrane potential and triggers a response from the transmission of electrical signals along the axon. This sheath target cell, such as the generation of an action potential, the is made by specialized cells called glia.
In the brain, the glia contraction of a muscle, the stimulation of enzyme activity, that make the sheath are called oligodendrocytes, and in the or the inhibition of neurotransmitter release. peripheral nervous system, they are known as Schwann cells. An increased understanding of neurotransmitters in The brain contains at least ten times more glia than the brain and knowledge of the effects of drugs on these neurons. Glia perform many jobs. Researchers have known chemicals — gained largely through animal research — for a while that glia transport nutrients to neurons, clean comprise one of the largest research efforts in neuroscience. p brain debris, digest parts of dead neurons, and help hold Scientists hope that this information will help them neurons in place. Current research is uncovering important become more knowledgeable about the circuits responsible new roles for glia in brain function. for disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. 8 BraiN fac
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Introducing Brain's 7th Edition: A Dedicated Focus on Public Education and Outreach
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As part of its enduring commitment to public education and outreach, the Society for Neuroscience (SfN) is pleased to present the seventh edition of Brain Facts: A Primer on the Brain and Nervous System. This edition has been substantially revised. Research progress has been updated throughout the publication, and a new section on animal research added. The information also has been reorganized into six sections to make it easier for readers to glean the "big ideas" covered, and the specific topics that fall under each category.
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The publication of the Brain Facts seventh edition coincides with the launch of BrainFacts. org, a public information initiative of The Kavli Foundation, The Gatsby Charitable Foundation, and SfN. BrainFacts. org brings to digital life the historic Brain Facts book, and augments it with hundreds of additional, scientifically vetted public information resources available from leading neuroscience organizations worldwide. BrainFacts. org is envisioned as a dynamic and unique online source for authoritative public information about the progress and promise of brain research.
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What's more, scientists still have not uncovered the extent of what the brain can do. This single organ controls every aspect of our body, ranging from heart rate and sexual activity to emotion, learning, and memory. The brain controls the immune system's response to disease, and determines, in part, how well people respond to medical treatments. Ultimately, it shapes our thoughts, hopes, dreams, and imaginations. It is the ability of the brain to perform all of these functions that makes us human.
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Neuroscientists, whose specialty is the study of the brain and the nervous system, have the daunting task of deciphering the mystery of how the brain commands the body. Over the years, the field has made enormous progress. For example, neuroscientists now know that each person has as many as 100 billion nerve cells called neurons, and the communication between these cells forms the basis of all brain function. However, scientists continue to strive for a deeper understanding of how these cells are born, grow, and organize themselves into effective, functional circuits that usually remain in working order for life.
The motivation of researchers is to further our understanding of human behavior, including how we read and speak and why we form relationships; to discover ways to prevent or cure many devastating disorders of the brain as well as the body under the brain's control; and to advance the enduring scientific quest to understand how the world around us — and within us — works. The importance of this research cannot be overstated. More than 1,000 disorders of the brain and nervous system result in more hospitalizations than any other disease group, including heart disease and cancer.
Neurological illnesses affect more than 50 million Americans annually and cost more than $500 billion to treat. In addition, mental disorders strike 44 million adults a year at a cost of $148 billion. Advances in research could reduce these costs. For example, discovering how to delay the onset of Alzheimer's disease by five years could save $50 billion in annual health care costs. In the past two decades, neuroscience has made impressive progress in many of the field's key areas. Now, more than ever, neuroscience is on the cusp of major breakthroughs.
Recently, significant findings have been documented in the following areas. Genetics Disease genes have been identified that are key to several disorders, including the epilepsies, Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). These discoveries have provided new insight into underlying disease mechanisms and are beginning to suggest new treatments. With the mapping of the human genome, neuroscientists have been able to make more rapid progress in identifying genes that either contribute to or directly cause human neurological disease.
Mapping animal genomes has aided the search for genes that regulate and control many complex behaviors. Gene-environment Interactions Most major diseases have a genetic basis strongly influenced by the environment. For example, identical twins, who share the same DNA, have an increased risk of getting the same disease compared with nonidentical siblings. However, if one twin gets the disease, the probability the other will also be affected is between 30 percent and 60 percent, indicating that there are environmental factors at play as well.
Environmental influences involve factors such as exposure to toxic substances, diet, level of physical activity, and stressful life events. Brain Plasticity The brain possesses the ability to modify neural connections to better cope with new circumstances. Scientists have begun to uncover the molecular basis of this process, called plasticity, revealing how learning and memory occur and how declines might be reversed. In addition, scientists have discovered that the adult brain continually generates new nerve cells — a 4 BraiN factS | introduction
Society for NeuroScieNce process known as neurogenesis. Interestingly, one of the most active regions for neurogenesis in the brain, the hippocampus, is also an area heavily involved in learning and memory. New Therapies Researchers have gained insight into the mechanisms of molecular neuropharmacology, or how drugs affect the functioning of neurons in the nervous system, providing a new understanding of the mechanisms of addiction. These advances have also led to new treatments for depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
In addition, neuroscientists have discovered that many of the toxic venoms used by animals can be adapted into new pharmacological treatments. For example, the poison of a puffer fish, tetrodotoxin (TTX), halts electrical signaling in nerve cells. However, in discrete, targeted doses, TTX can be used specifically to shut down those nerve cells involved in sending constant signals of chronic pain. Imaging Revolutionary imaging techniques, including positron emission tomography (PET), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and optical imaging with weak lasers, have revealed the brain systems underlying attention, memory, and emotions.
These techniques also have pointed to dynamic changes that occur in schizophrenia and other disorders. Cell Death Two major advances in neuroscience — the discovery of how and why neurons die, along with the discovery of stem cells, which divide and form new neurons — have many clinical applications. These findings have dramatically improved the chances of reversing the effects of injury in both the brain and the spinal cord. The first effective treatments for stroke and spinal cord injury based on these advances are under study.
Brain Development New understanding of brain function, as well as newly discovered molecules responsible for guiding nervous system development, have given scientists greater insight into certain disorders of childhood, such as cerebral palsy. Together with the discovery of stem cells, these advances are pointing to novel strategies for helping the brain or spinal cord regain functions lost as a result of injury or developmental dysfunction. This book provides a glimpse of what is known about the nervous system, the disorders of the brain, and some of the exciting avenues of research that promise new therapies for many neurological diseases.
In the years ahead, neuroscience research funded by public and private support will continue to expand our knowledge of how this extraordinary organ and the entire nervous system function. Society for NeuroScieNce introduction | BraiN factS 5 chaPter 1: haPter BraiN BaSicS in n this chapter Anatomy of the Brain and the Nervous System The Neuron Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators n n Anatomy of the Brain and the Nervous System The brain is the body's control center, managing just about everything we do. Whether we're thinking, dreaming, playing sports, or even sleeping, the brain is involved in some way.
A wonder of evolutionary engineering, the brain is organized into different parts that are wired together in a specific way. Each part has a specific job (or jobs) to do, making the brain the ultimate multitasker. Working in tandem with the rest of the nervous system, the brain sends and receives messages, allowing for ongoing communication. Mapping the Brain The cerebrum, the largest part of the human brain, is associated with higher order functioning, including the control of voluntary behavior. Thinking, perceiving, planning, and understanding language all lie within the cerebrum's control.
The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres — the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere. Bridging the two hemispheres is a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum. The two hemispheres communicate with one another across the corpus callosum. Covering the outermost layer of the cerebrum is a sheet of tissue called the cerebral cortex. Because of its gray color, the cerebral cortex is often referred to as gray matter. The wrinkled appearance of the human brain also can be attributed to characteristics of the cerebral cortex. More than two-thirds of this layer is folded into grooves.
The grooves increase the brain's surface area, allowing for inclusion of many more neurons. The function of the cerebral cortex can be understood by dividing it somewhat arbitrarily into zones, much like the geographical arrangement of continents. The frontal lobe is responsible for initiating and coordinating motor movements; higher cognitive skills, such as problem solving, thinking, planning, and organizing; and for many aspects of personality and emotional makeup. The parietal lobe is involved with sensory processes, attention, and language.
Damage to the right side of the parietal lobe can result in difficulty navigating spaces, even familiar ones. If the left side is injured, the ability to understand spoken and/or written language may be impaired. The occipital lobe helps process visual information, including recognition of shapes and colors. The temporal lobe helps process auditory information and integrate information from the other senses. Neuroscientists also believe that the temporal lobe has a role to play in short-term memory through its hippocampal formation, and in learned emotional responses through its amygdala.
All of these structures make up the forebrain. Other key parts of the forebrain include the basal ganglia, which are cerebral nuclei deep in the cerebral cortex; the thalamus; and the hypothalamus. The cerebral nuclei help coordinate muscle movements and reward useful behaviors; the thalamus passes most sensory information on to the cerebral cortex after helping to prioritize it; and the hypothalamus is the control center for appetites, defensive and reproductive behaviors, and sleep-wakefulness. The midbrain consists of two pairs of small hills called colliculi.
These collections of neurons play a critical role in visual and auditory reflexes and in relaying this type of information to the thalamus. The midbrain also has clusters of neurons that regulate activity in widespread parts of the central nervous system and are thought to be important for reward mechanisms and mood. The hindbrain includes the pons and the medulla oblongata, which control respiration, heart rhythms, and blood glucose levels. Another part of the hindbrain is the cerebellum which, like the cerebrum, also has two hemispheres.
The cerebellum's two hemispheres help control movement and cognitive processes that require precise timing, and also play an important role in Pavlovian learning. The spinal cord is the extension of the brain through the vertebral column. It receives sensory information from all parts 6 BraiN factS | introduction to the brain Society for NeuroScieNce small concentrations of gray matter called ganglia, a term specifically used to describe structures in the PNS. Overall the nervous system is a vast biological computing device formed by a network of gray matter regions interconnected by white matter tracts.
The brain sends messages via the spinal cord to peripheral nerves throughout the body that serve to control the muscles and internal organs. The somatic nervous system is made up of neurons connecting the CNS with the parts of the body that interact with the outside world. Somatic nerves in the cervical region are related to the neck and arms; those in the thoracic region serve the chest; and those in the lumbar and sacral regions interact with the legs. The autonomic nervous system is made of neurons connecting the CNS with internal organs. It is divided into two parts.
The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes energy and resources during times of stress and arousal, while the parasympathetic nervous system conserves energy and resources during relaxed states, including sleep. Messages are carried throughout the nervous system by the individual units of its circuitry: neurons. The next section describes the structure of neurons, how they send and receive messages, and recent discoveries about these unique cells. The top image shows the four main sections of the cerebral cortex: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe.
Functions such as movement are controlled by the motor cortex, and the sensory cortex receives information on vision, hearing, speech, and other senses. The bottom image shows the location of the brain's major internal structures. The Neuron of the body below the head. It uses this information for reflex responses to pain, for example, and it also relays the sensory information to the brain and its cerebral cortex. In addition, the spinal cord generates nerve impulses in nerves that control the muscles and the viscera, both through reflex activities and through voluntary commands from the cerebrum.
The Parts of the Nervous System The forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord form the central nervous system (CNS), which is one of two great divisions of the nervous system as a whole. The brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord, which is about 17 inches (43 cm) long, is protected by the vertebral column. The other great division of the human brain is the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves and Cells within the nervous system, called neurons, communicate with each other in unique ways.
The neuron is the basic working unit of the brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells. In fact, the brain is what it is because of the structural and functional properties of interconnected neurons. The mammalian brain contains between 100 million and 100 billion neurons, depending on the species. Each mammalian neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The cell body contains the nucleus and cytoplasm. The axon extends from the cell body and often gives rise to many smaller branches before ending at nerve terminals.
Dendrites extend from the neuron cell body and receive messages from other neurons. Synapses are the contact points where one neuron communicates with another. The dendrites are covered with synapses formed by the ends of axons from other neurons. When neurons receive or send messages, they transmit electrical impulses along their axons, which can range Society for NeuroScieNce introduction to the brain | BraiN factS 7 Nerve impulses involve the opening and closing of ion channels.
These are selectively permeable, water-filled molecular tunnels that pass through the cell membrane and allow ions — electrically charged atoms — or small molecules to enter or leave the cell. The flow of ions creates an electrical current that produces tiny voltage changes across the neuron's cell membrane. The ability of a neuron to generate an electrical impulse depends on a difference in charge between the inside and outside of the cell. When a nerve impulse begins, a dramatic reversal in the electrical potential occurs on the cell's membrane, as the neuron switches from an internal negative charge to a positive charge state.
The change, called an action potential, then passes along the axon's membrane at speeds up to several hundred miles per hour. In this way, a neuron may be able to fire impulses multiple times every second. When these voltage changes reach the end of an axon, they trigger the release of neurotransmitters, the brain's chemical messengers. Neurotransmitters are released at nerve terminals, diffuse across the synapse, and bind to receptors on the surface of the target cell (often another neuron, but also possibly a muscle or gland cell).
These receptors act as onThe nervous system has two great divisions: the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves and-off switches for the next cell. Each receptor and small concentrations of gray matter called ganglia. The brain sends messages via the spinal has a distinctly shaped region that selectively cord to the body's peripheral nerves, which control the muscles and internal organs. recognizes a particular chemical messenger.
A neurotransmitter fits into this region in much in length from a tiny fraction of an inch (or centimeter) the same way that a key fits into a lock. When to three feet (about one meter) or more. Many axons are the transmitter is in place, this interaction alters the target covered with a layered myelin sheath, which accelerates the cell's membrane potential and triggers a response from the transmission of electrical signals along the axon. This sheath target cell, such as the generation of an action potential, the is made by specialized cells called glia.
In the brain, the glia contraction of a muscle, the stimulation of enzyme activity, that make the sheath are called oligodendrocytes, and in the or the inhibition of neurotransmitter release. peripheral nervous system, they are known as Schwann cells. An
Categories: BrainMemoryNervous SystemNeuron
About this essay
Strange silence permeater the room as Xia Feng started crying. Tears rolled down like an endless river as his lips curled up and he let out strange laughter.
His voice was horse, as if chalking grinding against the board.
The intense barrage of memories came with not only endless skills but endless memories as well.
Emotions so overbearing for a 16-year-old he didn't know why his brain hadn't exploded yet.
Strange silence permeater the room as Xia Feng started crying. Tears rolled down like an endless river as his lips curled up and he let out strange laughter.
His voice was horse, as if chalking grinding against the board.
The intense barrage of memories came with not only endless skills but endless memories as well.
Emotions so overbearing for a 16-year-old he didn't know why his brain hadn't exploded yet.
Strange silence permeater the room as Xia Feng started crying. Tears rolled down like an endless river as his lips curled up and he let out strange laughter.
His voice was horse, as if chalking grinding against the board.
The intense barrage of memories came with not only endless skills but endless memories as well.
Emotions so overbearing for a 16-year-old he didn't know why his brain hadn't exploded yet.
Strange silence permeater the room as Xia Feng started crying. Tears rolled down like an endless river as his lips curled up and he let out strange laughter.
His voice was horse, as if chalking grinding against the board.
The intense barrage of memories came with not only endless skills but endless memories as well.
Emotions so overbearing for a 16-year-old he didn't know why his brain hadn't exploded yet.
Strange silence permeater the room as Xia Feng started crying. Tears rolled down like an endless river as his lips curled up and he let out strange laughter.
His voice was horse, as if chalking grinding against the board.
The intense barrage of memories came with not only endless skills but endless memories as well.
Emotions so overbearing for a 16-year-old he didn't know why his brain hadn't exploded yet.
The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres — the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere. Bridging the two hemispheres is a bundle of fibers called the corpus callosum. The two hemispheres communicate with one another across the corpus callosum. Covering the outermost layer of the cerebrum is a sheet of tissue called the cerebral cortex. Because of its gray color, the cerebral cortex is often referred to as gray matter. The wrinkled appearance of the human brain also can be attributed to characteristics of the cerebral cortex. More than two-thirds of this layer is folded into grooves.
The grooves increase the brain's surface area, allowing for inclusion of many more neurons. The function of the cerebral cortex can be understood by dividing it somewhat arbitrarily into zones, much like the geographical arrangement of continents. The frontal lobe is responsible for initiating and coordinating motor movements; higher cognitive skills, such as problem solving, thinking, planning, and organizing; and for many aspects of personality and emotional makeup. The parietal lobe is involved with sensory processes, attention, and language.
Damage to the right side of the parietal lobe can result in difficulty navigating spaces, even familiar ones. If the left side is injured, the ability to understand spoken and/or written language may be impaired. The occipital lobe helps process visual information, including recognition of shapes and colors. The temporal lobe helps process auditory information and integrate information from the other senses. Neuroscientists also believe that the temporal lobe has a role to play in short-term memory through its hippocampal formation, and in learned emotional responses through its amygdala.
All of these structures make up the forebrain. Other key parts of the forebrain include the basal ganglia, which are cerebral nuclei deep in the cerebral cortex; the thalamus; and the hypothalamus. The cerebral nuclei help coordinate muscle movements and reward useful behaviors; the thalamus passes most sensory information on to the cerebral cortex after helping to prioritize it; and the hypothalamus is the control center for appetites, defensive and reproductive behaviors, and sleep-wakefulness. The midbrain consists of two pairs of small hills called colliculi.
These collections of neurons play a critical role in visual and auditory reflexes and in relaying this type of information to the thalamus. The midbrain also has clusters of neurons that regulate activity in widespread parts of the central nervous system and are thought to be important for reward mechanisms and mood. The hindbrain includes the pons and the medulla oblongata, which control respiration, heart rhythms, and blood glucose levels. Another part of the hindbrain is the cerebellum which, like the cerebrum, also has two hemispheres.
The cerebellum's two hemispheres help control movement and cognitive processes that require precise timing, and also play an important role in Pavlovian learning. The spinal cord is the extension of the brain through the vertebral column. It receives sensory information from all parts 6 BraiN factS | introduction to the brain Society for NeuroScieNce small concentrations of gray matter called ganglia, a term specifically used to describe structures in the PNS. Overall the nervous system is a vast biological computing device formed by a network of gray matter regions interconnected by white matter tracts.
The brain sends messages via the spinal cord to peripheral nerves throughout the body that serve to control the muscles and internal organs. The somatic nervous system is made up of neurons connecting the CNS with the parts of the body that interact with the outside world. Somatic nerves in the cervical region are related to the neck and arms; those in the thoracic region serve the chest; and those in the lumbar and sacral regions interact with the legs. The autonomic nervous system is made of neurons connecting the CNS with internal organs. It is divided into two parts.
The sympathetic nervous system mobilizes energy and resources during times of stress and arousal, while the parasympathetic nervous system conserves energy and resources during relaxed states, including sleep. Messages are carried throughout the nervous system by the individual units of its circuitry: neurons. The next section describes the structure of neurons, how they send and receive messages, and recent discoveries about these unique cells. The top image shows the four main sections of the cerebral cortex: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe.
Functions such as movement are controlled by the motor cortex, and the sensory cortex receives information on vision, hearing, speech, and other senses. The bottom image shows the location of the brain's major internal structures. The Neuron of the body below the head. It uses this information for reflex responses to pain, for example, and it also relays the sensory information to the brain and its cerebral cortex. In addition, the spinal cord generates nerve impulses in nerves that control the muscles and the viscera, both through reflex activities and through voluntary commands from the cerebrum.
The Parts of the Nervous System The forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord form the central nervous system (CNS), which is one of two great divisions of the nervous system as a whole. The brain is protected by the skull, while the spinal cord, which is about 17 inches (43 cm) long, is protected by the vertebral column. The other great division of the human brain is the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves and Cells within the nervous system, called neurons, communicate with each other in unique ways.
The neuron is the basic working unit of the brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells. In fact, the brain is what it is because of the structural and functional properties of interconnected neurons. The mammalian brain contains between 100 million and 100 billion neurons, depending on the species. Each mammalian neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. The cell body contains the nucleus and cytoplasm. The axon extends from the cell body and often gives rise to many smaller branches before ending at nerve terminals.
Dendrites extend from the neuron cell body and receive messages from other neurons. Synapses are the contact points where one neuron communicates with another. The dendrites are covered with synapses formed by the ends of axons from other neurons. When neurons receive or send messages, they transmit electrical impulses along their axons, which can range Society for NeuroScieNce introduction to the brain | BraiN factS 7 Nerve impulses involve the opening and closing of ion channels.
These are selectively permeable, water-filled molecular tunnels that pass through the cell membrane and allow ions — electrically charged atoms — or small molecules to enter or leave the cell. The flow of ions creates an electrical current that produces tiny voltage changes across the neuron's cell membrane. The ability of a neuron to generate an electrical impulse depends on a difference in charge between the inside and outside of the cell. When a nerve impulse begins, a dramatic reversal in the electrical potential occurs on the cell's membrane, as the neuron switches from an internal negative charge to a positive charge state.
The change, called an action potential, then passes along the axon's membrane at speeds up to several hundred miles per hour. In this way, a neuron may be able to fire impulses multiple times every second. When these voltage changes reach the end of an axon, they trigger the release of neurotransmitters, the brain's chemical messengers. Neurotransmitters are released at nerve terminals, diffuse across the synapse, and bind to receptors on the surface of the target cell (often another neuron, but also possibly a muscle or gland cell).
These receptors act as onThe nervous system has two great divisions: the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves and-off switches for the next cell. Each receptor and small concentrations of gray matter called ganglia. The brain sends messages via the spinal has a distinctly shaped region that selectively cord to the body's peripheral nerves, which control the muscles and internal organs. recognizes a particular chemical messenger.
A neurotransmitter fits into this region in much in length from a tiny fraction of an inch (or centimeter) the same way that a key fits into a lock. When to three feet (about one meter) or more. Many axons are the transmitter is in place, this interaction alters the target covered with a layered myelin sheath, which accelerates the cell's membrane potential and triggers a response from the transmission of electrical signals along the axon. This sheath target cell, such as the generation of an action potential, the is made by specialized cells called glia.
In the brain, the glia contraction of a muscle, the stimulation of enzyme activity, that make the sheath are called oligodendrocytes, and in the or the inhibition of neurotransmitter release. peripheral nervous system, they are known as Schwann cells. An increased understanding of neurotransmitters in The brain contains at least ten times more glia than the brain and knowledge of the effects of drugs on these neurons. Glia perform many jobs. Researchers have known chemicals — gained largely through animal research — for a while that glia transport nutrients to neurons, clean comprise one of the largest research efforts in neuroscience. p brain debris, digest parts of dead neurons, and help hold Scientists hope that this information will help them neurons in place. Current research is uncovering important become more knowledgeable about the circuits responsible new roles for glia in brain function. for disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. 8 BraiN fac