Across the earliest civilizations, dance emerged as a vital part of human life—a ritual, a celebration, a means to tell stories and bring communities together. Yet, there is no clear evidence of where or when dance first originated from. Archaeological sites such as Tepe Sialk and Tepe Hissar in Iran trace the history of dance as far back as the sixth millennium BCE. Similar evidence appears in the tomb paintings of ancient Egypt, the religious ceremonies of ancient Greece, the shamanic rituals of China, and many more cultures.
Although these civilizations may never have communicated during their existence, the core essence of dance has remained constant: a form of devotion, worship and storytelling.
This tradition of dance as an offering to the divine can also be witnessed throughout the Indian civilizations. Even today, classical Indian dance forms are performed in temples during worship and sacred rituals. India is home to various dance forms, each with its own beliefs regarding origin. Physical evidence includes the famous "Wizard's Dance" painting found in the Bhimbetka caves, which themselves are estimated to be around thirty thousand years old.
But when it comes to written evidence, it is the Nāṭyaśāstra, one of the oldest, if not the oldest, treatises on performing arts, that takes the lead. Written by Bharata Muni, this ancient text explores deeply the many aspects of dance, including rāga (melodic framework), mudrā (hand gestures), abhinaya (expressions), pāda-vinyāsa (footwork), and more, offering a detailed guide to the art both in form and spirit. This text describes dance not merely as physical movement but as a holistic spiritual practice that integrated the body, mind, and soul.
This chapter shall discuss the treatises of Nāṭyaśāstra and other sources, while trying to understand their spiritual aspect closely.
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While Nāṭyaśāstra describes various techniques and their usage, there are four basic units for performing dance: Cārīs, Karaṇas, Aṅgahāras, and Recakas. They are to be performed in the order: ārīs, Karaṇas, Recakas, and Aṅgahāras.
Cārīs (leg movements) are the foundation of movement in classical dance. They involve basic footwork and gaits (walking, gliding, jumping).
Karaṇas are the composite movements. Each karaṇa is a combination of cārīs (legs) and hastas (hand gestures). They are the primary units of stylized dance poses.
Recakas are the graceful limb movements. They are not independent dance units but performed alongside or after karaṇas to enhance expressiveness.
Aṅgahāras are compositions of 4/6/8 karaṇas. They are performed after mastering individual karaṇas and their transitions (recakas).
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In Nāṭyaśāstra there are thirty two Cārīs, one hundred eight Karaṇas, four Recakas and thirty two Aṅgahāras. Among all these the first pose or Karana is the Talapuspaputa (lit. Flower-cupped palm), in which the performer or dancer poses with the hand the double handed mudra symbolizing like offering flowers to the revered God.
The mythic origin of these movements and dance comes from Nāṭyaśāstra. It is said that after (upon Bharata Muni's request) Lord Shiva performed the movements required for the dance, he taught it to on of his followers-Tandu. After Tandu mastered the dance and taught it to humans, this dance came to be known as Tandava or "The dance of Tandu". It is performed mostly to accompany the adoration of the Gods.
While not restricted to male performers, the physical intensity and dynamic energy of Tāṇḍava often make it more suited to masculine expression. As the story goes, upon witnessing Shiva's fierce cosmic dance, Goddess Pārvatī, wife of Lord Shiva, joined him, performing a gentler, more graceful form of Tandava, known as Lāsya. While Tāṇḍava embodied power, destruction, and transcendence, Lāsya expressed beauty, softness, and nurturing energy..
There is another belief associated with the origin of the dance. It is believed that after slaying the Demon Kings Tripurasur, Lord Pashupati (lit. Lord of beasts) or Lord Shiva, went into trance and started dancing. This dance was itself the embodiment of extreme emotions of courage and anger, with every stomp of the foot shaking the universe. And to protect the destruction of universe, Goddess Parvati began dancing alongside her husband, Lord Shiva. This dance, Lasya, embodied gentleness, complementing the Tandava's roughness.
Well, this isn't a history lesson. The intention of telling this story was to understand that even though Tandava, the cosmic dance of Lord Shiva, is said to be the dance of inevitable destruction; it is also where gentle dance forms such as Lasya or Bharatanatyam and Mohiniyattam, that are performed in current times, are based on.
Emphasizing the belief that within destruction lies the roots of creation.
Spiritual relevance of dance:
In ancient India, dance was never limited to entertainment. It was a sacred act, a path to spiritual elevation. Dancing was considered a way of offering oneself to the divine—both physically and emotionally. It required discipline, purity of intent, and full awareness. Every movement had meaning, and every gesture was infused with devotion.
Indian classical dance is not just about expressing outer beauty but also about awakening the inner self. Rooted in the Vedas and Upanishads [as Nāṭyaśāstra or Nāṭyaveda is said to take inspirations from all the vedas (according to the shloka/verse 16- page 4 of Nāṭyaśāstra tl. by Manomohan Ghosh)], its philosophy teaches that the body is a temple, and movement within it is a form of worship. Over time, many dance styles evolved, but their essence remained spiritual.
Let us now look at how this spiritual essence lives on in some of the most celebrated Indian dance forms.
1. Bharatanatyam:
Bharatanatyam originated in Tamil Nadu and is one of the oldest and well known form of classical Indian dance. Originally performed in temples by Devadasis (women dedicated to temple service), Bharatanatyam was a part of daily worship rituals.
The word Bharatanatyam is widely interpreted as a combination of two words "Bharata" and "Natyam". The word Natyam means dance, and the word "Bharata" can further be broken down as "Bha" (Bhava or emotion), "Ra" (Raga or music/melody), "Ta" (Tala or rhythm).
In this way if we look at the overall definition of Bharatanatyam, it is about harmoniously bringing together dance with emotions, melody, and rhythm to portray a narrative which is appealing to the observer both visually and spiritually.
Before every performance, the dancer offers a Pushpanjali—a prayer through flowers, expressing surrender to the gods, and to ask for guidance. Most performances begin with a prayer to Lord Nataraja, the dancing form of Shiva.
Bharatanatyam is spiritual not only in its purpose but also in how it is performed. Each step, hand gesture, and facial expression is used to tell sacred stories from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and the Puranas.
There are a total of fifty five mudras (hand gestures) including thirty two Asamyukta Hasta mudras which involve a single hand, while twenty three Samyukta Hasta mudras that require both hands. Some of these hand gestures are:
Pataka (lit. flag) – represents a flag, blessing, or forest
Tripataka (lit. three-part flag) – used for flames or crowns
Kataka-mukha – used to depict holding a garland or necklace
In Bharatanatyam, the performance usually follows a traditional format that begins with Alarippu, a rhythmic offering that serves as a warm-up. This is followed by Jatiswaram, a pure dance sequence that emphasizes intricate footwork and rhythm without expressive elements. The centerpiece is Varnam, which combines both technical dance and expressive storytelling, showcasing the dancer's skill and emotional depth. After this, the performance moves into Padams and Bhajans, devotional pieces that delve into storytelling through facial expressions and subtle gestures. The performance concludes with Tillana, a vibrant and fast-paced dance celebrating joy and devotion, often offered in praise of a deity.
Keeping aside the steps and gestures, even the dancer's attire holds symbolic meaning. Usually adorned with the vibrant red color and golden embroidery, the traditional dress is a symbol of divine energy, auspiciousness, devotion, passion, and life itself.
The dancers, while following a set structure, finds themselves going deeper into meditation and devotion, often experiencing a sense of unity with the divine.
2. Mohiniyattam – The Enchantress's Dance
Mohiniyattam comes from Kerala and is traditionally performed by women. The name is linked to Mohini, the female form of Lord Vishnu who enchanted demons to restore balance in the cosmos. Thus it can also be called "The Dance of Enchantress".
This form is known for its soft, graceful movements and gentle swaying. Unlike Bharatanatyam's strong lines, Mohiniyattam flows like water. It reflects beauty, peace, and inner serenity.
Spiritual expression in Mohiniyattam can be seen through its slow pace and emotional depth. A sense of inner peace is essential, as this dance form avoids dramatic expressions and instead unfolds in a calm, meditative rhythm.
Mohiniyattam uses a total of twenty four mudras, most of which are mostly from Hastalakṣaṇadīpikā, a classical treatise detailing the hand gestures used in Kerala. A few of the commonly used mudras are:
Hamsasya – for sacred symbols or threading
Ardhachandra – for moon, offering, or bow
Alapadma – the blossoming lotus
Throughout the performance the movements are circular, symbolizing eternity and unity with nature. The eyes stay downcast, symbolizing humility, and the dancer's smile is serene, suggesting inner joy.
A Mohiniyattam performance generally follows a structured sequence where each part contributes to its graceful and devotional essence. It often begins with Cholkettu, an opening prayer that combines rhythmic syllables with gentle movements to set a spiritual atmosphere. This is followed by Jatiswaram, a pure dance piece that focuses on rhythm and footwork without incorporating expressions or storytelling. The next segment, Varnam, blends expressive gestures and technical dance elements, allowing the performer to showcase both skill and emotion. Finally, Padamsare performed—these are lyrical devotional songs where the dancer uses subtle abhinaya (expressions) to convey stories of love, longing, and divine connection.
And beyond these structured steps and techniques, the dress that usually carries the white color along with the golden or red embroidery, symbolizes purity, wisdom and peace.
This slow paced dance feels like a prayer—soft, flowing, and divine.
3. Tandava – The Dance of Cosmic Destruction
As mentioned earlier, Tandava is Lord Shiva's cosmic dance of destruction and recreation. When he performs Tandava, it is not a mere display of strength—it is the movement of the universe itself. Creation, preservation, and destruction all happen through the rhythm of his dance.
Tandava is composed of large, powerful movements. It requires strength, control, and focus. There are different types of Tandava:
Ananda Tandava – the dance of joy and bliss
Rudra Tandava – fierce and destructive
Urdhva Tandava – symbolic of elevation and spiritual rise
While Tandava expresses chaos and energy, it also holds balance. For every destructive movement, there is an element of creation. The dancer becomes like Shiva himself—both a destroyer and creator.
Its counter part, Lasya, performed by Goddess Parvati, complements it beautifully. Lasya is gentle and delicate form of Tandava itself. It reflects the nourishing and creative aspect of the cosmos, just like Goddess Parvati, who is commonly worshipped as the mother of all beings.
Tāṇḍava's gentler counterpart, Lāsya, is associated with sukumāra-prayoga—the delicate and graceful expression—which relates to the Śṛṅgāra Rasa, often translated as the Erotic Sentiment [Nāṭyaśāstra, verse 272, page 69, tl. Manomohan Ghosh].
While the word "erotic" in English can sound crude or even vulgar, in classical Indian art, Śṛṅgāra means a pure and deep love—filled with devotion, and a sense of spiritual connection.
Thus, Tandava-Lasya is the dance of two souls, Shiva-Parvati or Purusha-Prakriti, souls that are free from the constraints of this world.
Together, Tandava and Lasya reflect the complete rhythm of life.
4. Chhau – The Martial Dance
Chhau is a unique blend of dance and martial art from Eastern India. It comes in three styles named after the location where they are performed: the Purulia Chhau of West Bengal, the Seraikella Chhau of Jharkhand and the Mayurbhanj Chhau of Odisha.
The dance style ranges from celebrating martial arts, acrobatics and athletics performed in festive themes of a folk dance, to a structured dance with religious narratives.
Chhau is vigorous. Dancers leap, spin, and perform combat-like sequences. The movements are symbolic imitating animals, gods, or past warriors. Yet in depths of strength and roughness, Chhau holds a spiritual essence. It speaks of the battle between good and evil, and the inner struggle of the soul.
In Mayurbhanj Chhau, no masks are used, and movements are more expressive. In Purulia Chhau, large masks are used to portray powerful mythic characters. Seraikella Chhau, uses symbolic masks and is more stylized and graceful.
Though dynamic and martial from the perspective of the observer, every Chhau dancer enters a sacred space, a space where they become the character, leaving behind the self, and stepping into the divine story.
Music: Soul of Dance
Apart from the graceful or vigorous movements, the dance has an inseparable part— music, without which the art of dance is nothing but incomplete. Through the ethereal melodies of music, dance comes to life and rises from just being a set of movements to being the realm of emotions and spirituality.
If dance is the body, then music is its soul. In Indian culture, music and dance are deeply intertwined with each other through the invisible thread of devotion. Every step, gesture, and expression of dance unfolds in harmony with the rhythm of the music.
In Indian classical tradition, music is deeply rooted in the philosophy of Nāda Brahma—the belief that the universe itself was born from sound/vibration, associated with the syllable OM. It holds an important place in the Indian culture as "OM" is fundamental beej-mantra and represents the tridev—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
Sound is not just a sensory experience but a sacred vibration that connects the material and the spiritual. By religious beliefs, this divine sound—nāda—is said to be the origin of all creation. Thus, when dance and music comes together in harmony, they become more than just entertainment and awakens the cosmic rhythm.
Even today, every step of dance is expected to align itself with the music and this is even more true about in classical Indian dance. Every mudra, footwork is kept in sync with tāla (musical rhythm) and rāga. The tāla governs time—the beats, cycles, and tempo—while the rāga guides the mood, emotion, and inner atmosphere. This perfect union of melody and rhythm provides the dancer a sacred stage upon which they narrate the story.
Tāla is derived from Sanskrit word for "clap". It consists of : Mantra, Vibhag (divisions), Sam (first beat), Taliand Kali (clap and wave), and Theka (rhythmic patterns). In Indian classical music their are a number of various Tāla, each depicting a different mood. Some of the common ones are as following:
Teentaal(16 beats), Ektaal(12 beats), Jhoomra(14 beats), Jhaptal(10 beat), Dadra(6 beats), Rupak(7 beats).
On the other hand, Rāga can't be given a proper definition in English language. While some say that it is derived from the word "Rang", which means color. This way, in relation with music, many interprets Rāga as something that colors the soul. Rāga can not be labelled as tune either, as a number of tunes can be derived from a single Rāga, or scale as different Rāgas can be put together under the same scale. Because of this as well as the inability to grasp the spiritual depth, it is often seen as a musical framework.
According to "Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide" by Roshen Dalal, an Indian historian and writer, Rāgas were not invented, instead they were discovered as the rāgas have existed since eternity. Unlike the modern music, a Rāga is not confined to just one meaning, it sets the mood and gives ones soul a path to experience the divine and to feel the sound of creation.
There are a total of eighty three Rāga in Indian classical music. Some of them are as follows:
Raag Bhairav, Raag Malkauns,Raag Deepak,Raag Yaman,Raag Bhimpalasi,Raag Bageshree,Raag Bihag etc.
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In dances like Bharatanatyam and Mohiniyattam, music usually includes compositions in ancient languages such as Sanskrit, Tamil, or Malayalam. These compositions are mostly inspired or taken from hymns, epics, such as Ramayana, and chants. The songs are not performed merely for the sake of entertainment, they holds a sacred and devotional place in hearts of many.
Even in Tāṇḍava, Lord Shiva's dance and its rhythm is shown to echo across the cosmos. Lord Shiva's dancing form is often depicted where his feet follows the beat of the damaru (a single handed drum similar to pellet drum), and its rhythm carries the energy of destruction and creation.
Apart from the mythical significance, music is also a symbol of mental fortitude, especially traditional music arts, rooted in different civilizations, as perfectly learning one can be quite challenging for it doesn't just require passion, but also the patience, discipline, training and ability to be able to grasp the core essence.
Similar to how a dancer prepares the body through discipline and training, the musician tunes not just his voice but also the heart, as the music is what his heart holds. Together, the dancer and the musician embody the two halves of a soul. When perfectly in harmony, they elevate the performance from an artistic event to a spiritual experience—a sacred dialogue between human and divine.
In essence, music is the invisible thread that binds the dancer to rhythm, story, emotion, and ultimately, to the sacred. It is not an accessory but an essence—a divine presence that animates, sanctifies, and completes the dance.
Conclusion:
In all the dance forms, whether soft or strong, Indian classical dance is a kind of, a worship —a sadhana. It is not about impressing an audience. It is about offering oneself to the divine. When a dancer performs with full devotion, they forget themselves and become one with the soul and the God himself.
Music, inseparable from dance, is the soul that breathes life into each movement. The harmony of rhythm (tāla) and melody (rāga) creates a sacred soundscape where the dancer's steps and gestures unfold. This divine dialogue between dancer and musician transforms the performance from an artistic display into a spiritual experience—a union of body, heart, and spirit.
Yet today, there are challenges. Many dancers, musicians, and singers learn these forms just for stage shows, films, or competition. That way, when these arts learnt while focusing only on the materialistic aspect and significance, their spiritual essence losses its presence. It is important to remember why these art forms were born—to worship, to meditate, to know oneself.
While efforts are being made to bring this awareness back. Schools, temples, NGOs, and artists are working to revive the spiritual essence of dance along with music. But more than anything, what is needed is pure intent—a desire to use art as a form of devotion.
In India's classical dance lies a great treasure—not only of beauty and tradition but of spiritual truth. If preserved and practiced with heart, these dances can still lead us to the divine.
Let us not forget that every step, every gesture, every beat was once a prayer. And through these movements, we too can find a path to the sacred.