In the second half of the first millennium BCE, Ashurbanipal, from approximately 668 to 627 BCE, ascended the throne of Assyria and registered his name as one of the most prominent and, at the same time, the last of the great rulers of this empire. He was known not only as a ruthless and experienced military commander but also for his interest in culture and knowledge. During his time, the Assyrian Empire reached its peak of power and extent, dominating vast lands including Babylonia, parts of the Median territory, and even Egypt.
One of Ashurbanipal's most important actions was the creation of a massive and unparalleled library in Nineveh, the capital of Assyria. This library contained thousands of clay tablets that housed various texts, including literature, science, history, laws, and even religious and administrative inscriptions. He sent scribes to collect and copy texts from all over Mesopotamia, thus preserving a treasure trove of knowledge and culture from that era for future generations. Today, this collection is recognized as one of the most valuable ancient libraries in the world, and countless pieces of information about ancient civilizations, including the Epic of Gilgamesh, have come to us through it.
Alongside its cultural aspect, Ashurbanipal's policies were accompanied by boundless suppression and violence. He was famous for the brutal torture of prisoners and the destruction of conquered cities, forcing his enemies into submission through massacres and atrocities in the subjugated regions. These behaviors, although seemingly consolidating Assyria's power, in reality, created deep resentment and hatred among the conquered nations and sowed the seeds of future rebellions.
During Ashurbanipal's reign, the territory of Assyria reached its greatest extent, including Babylonia, Syria, parts of the Iranian plateau, and even Egypt. However, maintaining this vast empire brought numerous challenges. Egypt, after a widespread rebellion led by Pharaoh Psamtik I (following the Assyrian defeat by the Cimmerians in the battle of 658 BCE), broke away from Assyrian rule, which was a sign of the empire's hidden weakness. Ashurbanipal was kind to his own people and the core territory of Assyria, but he treated the conquered peoples with the utmost cruelty.
Examples of his cruelty include forcing a defeated Elamite king to wear a chain in the shape of a dog's yoke on his jaw and live in a dog kennel during his captivity. One of his greatest military successes was the destruction of the city of Susa and the complete plunder of Elam. Elam, a long-standing enemy that had challenged Assyria for years, was completely devastated during this period, although the Elamites continued to exist in the mountains and alongside the Persian people in the kingdom of Anshan. He also succeeded in subjugating Urartu, another rival of Assyria in the north, and increasing his influence in those regions.
But this very overextension of power in conquests, especially in the complete conquest and destruction of Elam and Susa, led to the weakening of the Assyrians. The continuous and prolonged wars severely depleted the empire's human and economic resources, leaving the Assyrian army exhausted and weak. These costly victories, instead of consolidating power, actually weakened the foundations of the empire and made it vulnerable to future threats.
However, towards the end of his reign, Ashurbanipal himself was aware of the empire's weakness and exhaustion. In some of the recovered clay tablets, he complains of his old age and inability, expressing despair that no one listens to his commands anymore. This indicates the beginning of the internal decay of the empire, which even its most powerful king could not prevent. The lack of strong leadership and the poor economic and social conditions after his death in 627 BCE further increased discontent and paved the way for alliances against Assyria.
After the death of Ashurbanipal, the empire rapidly declined. Internal conflicts over succession, widespread rebellions in the subject territories, and economic weakness disintegrated Assyria from within. Vassal states declared independence, and chaos engulfed the entire empire. Ultimately, the powerful collaboration of the Medes and Babylonians against Assyria marked the end of this brutal empire. This alliance not only destroyed Assyrian dominance but also paved the way for the rise of the Medes and Babylonians in the Middle East, beginning a new era in ancient history.