UNIT 0 — Scientific Foundations / Research Methods (Modules 0.1–0.6)
(These are the research-methods / scientific-attitude words that Myers places in Unit 0.)
Core concepts / definitions
Psychology (scientific definition) — the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Emphasis: testable claims, systematic observation.
Note: the starting definition that motivates the scientific attitude.
Critical thinking — an approach that examines assumptions, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions rather than accepting claims at face value. Example: asking "How was the sample chosen?" before accepting a poll result.
Theory — an integrated set of principles that explains and predicts observed phenomena. Theories are broader than hypotheses and generate testable predictions. Example: social-learning theory explains how behavior can be acquired by observation.
Hypothesis — a testable prediction derived from a theory. It is phrased so it can be falsified by data. Example: "Sleep-deprived students will perform worse on memory tests than well-rested peers."
Falsifiable — a quality of a hypothesis/theory meaning it can be contradicted by evidence. Scientific claims must be falsifiable.
Operational definition — a precise description of how a variable is measured or manipulated in a study (turns abstract concepts into concrete measures). Example: "aggression = number of times participant presses a button to deliver a noise blast."
Replication — repeating an experiment (same or slightly modified) to see if results hold; replication increases confidence in findings.
Research designs & sampling
Population — the full group about which researchers want to draw conclusions.
Sample — subset of the population used in a study.
Random sample — every member of the population has an equal chance to be chosen; reduces sampling bias.
Random assignment — assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance; balances confounding factors across groups.
Sampling bias — when the sample does not accurately reflect the population; threatens generalizability.
Case study — detailed examination of one individual or small group; rich qualitative data but limited generalizability.
Naturalistic observation — observing behavior in its natural environment without interference; useful for describing behavior.
Survey — asking people to report their attitudes/behaviors; efficient but vulnerable to wording effects and self-report bias.
Variables & group types
Independent variable (IV) — the factor the experimenter manipulates.
Dependent variable (DV) — the measured outcome expected to change as a function of the IV.
Confounding variable — an extraneous factor that correlates with both IV and DV and can bias results.
Control group — participants who do not receive the experimental manipulation; baseline for comparison.
Experimental group — participants who receive the treatment/IV.
Correlation & causation
Correlation — a statistical association between two variables (how they co-vary). It does not imply causation by itself.
Correlation coefficient (r) — a number between −1.00 and +1.00 indicating the strength and direction of a linear relationship.
Scatterplot — a graphical depiction of correlation (each dot = one case).
Illusory correlation — perceiving a relationship where none exists.
Regression toward the mean — extreme scores on one measurement tend to be closer to average on subsequent measurement.
Experimental controls & validity
Placebo — an inert substance/treatment used in control groups; tests expectancy effects.
Placebo effect — participants' expectations produce a change in outcome.
Double-blind procedure — both participants and experimenters are blind to condition assignment; reduces expectancy and experimenter bias.
Demand characteristics — cues that make participants guess the study purpose and change behavior.
Statistics & measurement
Descriptive statistics — summarize and describe sample data (mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation).
Mean / median / mode / range / standard deviation — standard measures of central tendency and spread.
Inferential statistics — procedures for drawing conclusions about populations from sample data (e.g., t-tests, ANOVA).
Statistical significance (p-value) — probability that observed results are due to chance; conventionally p < .05 considered statistically significant (but interpret cautiously).
Effect size — the magnitude of an observed effect (important beyond just p-values).
Ethics & research protections
Informed consent — participants are told about the study and agree voluntarily.
Assent — a minor or cognitively limited person's affirmative agreement (in addition to parent/guardian consent).
Confidentiality — safeguarding participant data; identities not revealed.
Debriefing — explaining the study purpose and methods after participation, especially if deception was used.
Institutional Review Board (IRB) — committee that reviews research proposals to protect human subjects.
Peer review — independent experts evaluate a study before publication.
(These Unit 0 terms match the 4th-edition Unit 0 modules and teacher vocab packets used with Myers 4e.)
UNIT 1 — Biological Bases of Behavior (Modules 1.1–1.6 plus sensation & perception pieces often placed in Unit 1)
I grouped biologically focused terms (neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, nervous systems, endocrine system, brain imaging, plus sensation basics Myers covers in Unit 1 modules).
Neurons & neural communication
Neuron — a nerve cell that transmits information via electrical and chemical signals.
Dendrites — branch-like input structures that receive signals from other neurons.
Cell body (soma) — contains nucleus; integrates inputs.
Axon — long fiber that conducts electrical impulses (action potentials) away from the soma.
Myelin sheath — fatty insulation around axons that speeds conduction; produced by glial cells (Schwann cells in PNS, oligodendrocytes in CNS).
Terminal buttons (axon terminals) — release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Synapse (synaptic gap) — tiny space between one neuron's terminal and the next neuron's dendrite/shaft.
Action potential — brief electrical impulse that travels along an axon when a neuron fires (all-or-none).
Resting potential & threshold — neuron's membrane electrical state at rest and the level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential.
Neurotransmitters — chemical messengers released into synapse; examples and roles:
Acetylcholine (ACh) — muscle activation, memory (low ACh associated with Alzheimer's).
Dopamine — movement, reward, motivation (excess in some pathways linked to schizophrenia; low linked to Parkinson's).
Serotonin — mood regulation, appetite, sleep (targeted by many antidepressants).
Norepinephrine — arousal, alertness, stress responses.
GABA — main inhibitory neurotransmitter (calming effect).
Glutamate — main excitatory neurotransmitter (learning, memory).
Reuptake — neurotransmitter is reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron to terminate signal (target of SSRIs).
Agonist / antagonist — drugs that increase (agonist) or decrease (antagonist) neurotransmitter action.
Nervous system organization
Central nervous system (CNS) — brain + spinal cord; processes information and issues commands.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) — all nerves outside CNS; connects CNS to the body.
Somatic nervous system — voluntary control of skeletal muscles.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) — regulates glands and internal organs (involuntary).
Sympathetic division — mobilizes body for action (fight-or-flight): increases heart rate, dilates pupils, etc.
Parasympathetic division — conserves energy and calms the body (rest-and-digest).
Endocrine system
Hormones — chemical messengers released by glands into blood; slower, longer-lasting effects than neurotransmitters.
Pituitary gland — "master gland" that releases hormones controlling other glands (influenced by hypothalamus).
Adrenal glands — release epinephrine/norepinephrine in stress; regulate metabolism.
Interaction with nervous system — brain and endocrine system coordinate behavior and physiology.
Brain structures & functions
Brainstem — oldest part of brain; includes medulla (heartbeat, breathing), pons (sleep & arousal).
Reticular formation — network important for arousal and attention.
Thalamus — sensory relay station (except smell) to cortex.
Cerebellum — coordinates voluntary movement, balance, procedural memory.
Limbic system — emotion and memory hub:
Amygdala — emotion regulation, especially fear/aggression.
Hippocampus — memory formation (especially episodic and spatial memory).
Hypothalamus — drives (hunger, thirst, temperature, sexual behavior) and links nervous and endocrine systems.
Cerebral cortex — thin layer of neural tissue (folded) responsible for higher mental functions; divided into lobes:
Frontal lobe — planning, judgement, motor control (contains motor cortex, prefrontal cortex for executive functions).
Parietal lobe — sensory integration; contains somatosensory cortex (body sensations).
Occipital lobe — visual processing.
Temporal lobe — auditory processing, language comprehension (Wernicke area) and memory aspects.
Motor cortex / somatosensory cortex — strip-like regions mapping body parts to motor/sensory functions.
Association areas — integrate information across modalities; involved in complex thinking.
Corpus callosum — large band of fibers connecting left and right hemispheres; split-brain studies reveal lateralization.
Neural plasticity (neuroplasticity) — brain's ability to change structurally and functionally in response to experience (learning, recovery after injury).
Brain imaging & methods
EEG (electroencephalogram) — records electrical activity via scalp electrodes; good temporal resolution (sleep/states).
CT / CAT scan — structural X-ray slices of the brain.
MRI — high-resolution images of brain structure using magnetic fields.
fMRI — functional MRI measures blood flow (BOLD signal) related to activity; maps active brain areas.
PET scan — uses metabolic markers to show activity; detects regions consuming more glucose.
Lesion studies — infer function by observing deficits after focal brain damage.
Genetics & evolution
Genes / chromosomes / DNA — DNA segments (genes) across chromosomes carry hereditary information.
Genotype / phenotype — genotype = genetic makeup; phenotype = expressed traits (interaction of genes and environment).
Heritability — proportion of variation in a trait attributable to genetic differences within a population (context dependent).
Twin studies / adoption studies — research designs used to partition genetic and environmental contributions.
Natural selection / adaptation / evolutionary psychology — traits that contributed to survival/reproduction are more likely to be passed on; evolutionary psychology studies how natural selection shapes psychological traits.
Sensation & perception (Module overlaps)
Transduction — conversion of stimulus energy (light, sound, chemical) into neural impulses.
Absolute threshold — minimum stimulus intensity detectable 50% of the time.
Difference threshold (just-noticeable difference, JND) — smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.
Signal detection theory — predicts how and when we detect a faint stimulus amid noise; emphasizes decision processes.
Sensory adaptation — diminished sensitivity following prolonged stimulation (e.g., no longer noticing a persistent smell).
Rods & cones — retinal photoreceptors: rods (low light, peripheral), cones (color, detail, fovea).
Feature detectors — cortical neurons sensitive to specific stimulus features (edges, orientations).
Place theory / frequency theory (hearing) — competing explanations for pitch perception (place = where on basilar membrane; frequency = firing rate).
Conductive / sensorineural hearing loss — conductive = mechanical problem in ear; sensorineural = hair cells / auditory nerve damage.
Taste & smell receptors — chemoreceptors for gustation and olfaction; smell pathways are unique because they bypass thalamus to limbic system.
(Unit 1 in the 4th edition covers neurons → brain systems → senses and sleep topics mapped across modules 1.1–1.6.)
UNIT 2 — Cognition (Perception, Thinking, Memory, Language, Intelligence; Modules 2.1–2.6)
Unit 2 covers perception organization, thinking and problem solving, memory systems, language and intelligence. I grouped terms by subtopic for clarity.
Perception & perceptual organization (Module 2.1)
Top-down processing — perception guided by higher-level knowledge, expectations, and prior experiences. Example: reading messy handwriting using context.
Bottom-up processing — perception built from sensory input up to integration in the brain (data-driven).
Perceptual set — mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another (influenced by expectations, context).
Selective attention — focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus (e.g., headphone conversation).
Inattentional blindness — failing to see visible objects when attention is elsewhere (famous "gorilla" video effect).
Change blindness — failing to notice large changes in a scene when attention is not focused on the change.
Depth cues — binocular (retinal disparity, convergence) and monocular (relative size, interposition, linear perspective, texture gradient) cues used to perceive distance.
Gestalt principles — organizational rules for perception: figure-ground, proximity, similarity, continuation, closure (we perceive unified wholes).
Thinking & problem solving (Module 2.2)
Concepts & prototypes — concepts group objects/ideas; prototypes are best examples of a category (e.g., robin as prototype of bird).
Algorithm — step-by-step procedure guaranteed to produce a correct solution (but may be slow).
Heuristic — mental shortcut that speeds problem solving but can lead to errors.
Insight — sudden realization of a problem's solution (contrast with stepwise strategies).
Fixation — inability to view a problem from a fresh perspective; blocks solutions.
Functional fixedness — seeing objects only in terms of their usual functions; can inhibit creative solutions.
Confirmation bias — tendency to seek or interpret information that confirms existing beliefs.
Representative heuristic — judging probability by resemblance to prototype (can ignore base rates).
Availability heuristic — estimating likelihood by how easily examples come to mind (influenced by vividness/media coverage).
Memory (Module 2.3)
Memory stages & processes
Encoding — transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory (types: automatic vs effortful encoding; semantic vs acoustic vs visual encoding).
Storage — maintaining encoded information over time. Models: sensory memory → short-term (working) memory → long-term memory.
Retrieval — reactivating and recalling stored information.
Memory systems & types
Sensory memory — very brief (milliseconds–seconds) record of sensory input.
Short-term memory / working memory — limited capacity (often cited 7 ± 2 items); active processing of information (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive in Baddeley's model).
Chunking — grouping information into meaningful units to expand short-term capacity.
Long-term memory — relatively permanent store; subdivided into:
Explicit (declarative) memory — conscious facts/events (episodic = personal events; semantic = facts).
Implicit (nondeclarative) memory — unconscious skills and conditioned associations (procedural memory for skills).
Encoding specificity principle — retrieval is improved when the context at encoding matches the context at retrieval (context-dependent memory).
State-dependent memory / mood-congruent memory — recall is better when internal states match between encoding and retrieval.
Forgetting & distortions
Forgetting (decay vs interference) — decay: memory trace fading over time; interference: other information blocks retrieval.
Proactive interference — old info blocks new.
Retroactive interference — new info blocks old.
Retrieval failure — information is stored but inaccessible without proper cues.
Misinformation effect — incorporating misleading info into memory (Loftus research).
Source amnesia (source misattribution) — cannot remember where a memory originated; can lead to false memories.
Serial position effect — superiority of items at beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of lists.
Language (Module 2.4)
Phoneme — smallest distinctive sound unit (e.g., /k/).
Morpheme — smallest language unit that carries meaning (prefixes, words).
Grammar — system of rules: syntax (word order) and semantics (meaning).
Language acquisition device (Chomsky) — theory that humans have an innate capacity for language (nativist perspective); critical period concept for language learning.
Overregularization — applying grammar rules too broadly (children say "runned" instead of "ran").
Thinking about intelligence, testing & measurement (Module 2.5/2.6)
Intelligence (operational definitions vary) — often defined as the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.
Psychometrics — field concerned with the measurement of mental capacities and processes (tests).
IQ (intelligence quotient) — standardized score intended to measure intelligence relative to age norms (historic formula vs modern deviation IQ).
Standardization — process of administering tests to a representative sample to create norms.
Reliability — consistency of a test (test-retest, split-half).
Validity — does the test measure what it claims (content, predictive, construct validity).
Achievement vs aptitude tests — achievement = what you've learned; aptitude = potential ability.
Multiple intelligences (Gardner), Triarchic theory (Sternberg) — alternative models proposing varied facets of intelligence (creative, analytical, practical).